Signal phrases that say something.

How to write one

1. Name the author, and on first mention say who they are if it helps: “Neuroscientist Matthew Walker.”
2. Pick a verb that matches what the source does: argues, reports, concedes.
3. Give the quotation or paraphrase.
4. Finish with the citation the style needs. Because the name is already in the sentence, most styles shorten it.

A signal phrase can also come in the middle or at the end: “Sleep, Walker argues, is when the brain files the day away.” Vary the position so a paragraph does not read as a list of “X says.”

Verbs, by what they mean

• Neutralsays, writes, notes, observes, describes, explains, reports
• Argumentargues, claims, contends, maintains, insists, asserts
• Evidencefinds, shows, demonstrates, documents, measures
• Tentativesuggests, proposes, speculates, implies, raises the possibility
• Agreementagrees, confirms, supports, echoes, extends
• Concessionadmits, concedes, acknowledges, grants
• Disagreementdisputes, rejects, questions, challenges, refutes

Choose by meaning, not for variety. “Walker proves” claims more than most studies can; “Walker claims” can sound doubtful. “Refutes” says the other side was shown wrong, which is a strong judgment to make on a source’s behalf.

The tense each style expects

MLA 9

Present tense for what a source says: Walker argues, Morrison writes. The text is still saying it.

APA 7

Past tense or present perfect for research and other writers: Walker (2017) found, researchers have shown (APA 7, 4.12). Present tense for results that still hold or your own conclusions.

Chicago

Present tense is usual for what a source argues; past tense for events and for what someone did or said at a given time.

The citation after a signal phrase

• MLA 9Walker argues that memory depends on sleep (112). The name is in the sentence, so only the page goes in parentheses.
• APA 7Walker (2017) argued that memory depends on sleep (p. 112). The year follows the name; the page comes after a quotation, or after a paraphrase if you choose.
• ChicagoWalker argues that memory depends on sleep.¹ The note carries the full citation either way.

Without a signal phrase, the name moves into the parentheses. These are made by Format from the same book:

Every rule for the parenthetical form is in MLA in-text citations and APA in-text citations.

Common mistakes

1. A dropped quotation. A quotation standing alone as a sentence, with no signal phrase, leaves the reader to guess who said it and why it matters.
2. The name twice. In MLA, “Walker argues... (Walker 112)” repeats the name. After a signal phrase, give the page alone.
3. “States” every time. It is neutral to the point of saying nothing. Pick the verb that describes what the source does.
4. Tense drift. Pick the tense your style expects and keep it through the paragraph.

Questions